Frequently asked questions

Dr. N. Jithendran is an aesthetic, plastic, hand and reconstructive surgeon in Bengaluru. He holds an MBBS from Stanley Medical College, Chennai, an MS in Orthopaedics from GSVM Medical College, Kanpur, an MCh in Plastic Surgery from Safdarjung Hospital and VMMC (University of Delhi) and a DNB in Plastic Surgery, and trained in hand and microsurgery at Ganga Hospital, Coimbatore.

He consults at Trustwell Hospital (JC Road, Sudhama Nagar), Sammprada Onco + Wellness Hospital (J. P. Nagar), Phoenix Hospital (HSR Layout), Apollo Clinic (Bommanahalli, Hosur Road) and La Palazzo Residences (Sarjapur – Marathahalli Road). Call +91 99855 91555 to confirm timings.

Plastic surgery also covers reconstructive work: hand injuries and replantation of severed fingers or limbs, nerve and tendon repair, burns and burn scars, facial fractures, cleft and ear reconstruction, diabetic foot and non-healing wounds, pressure sores and reconstruction after cancer surgery.

Yes. He is available 24×7 for emergencies such as hand and finger amputations, crush injuries, burns and facial trauma. Call +91 99855 91555 or +91 93539 94761. For a severed part, wrap it in clean moist gauze, place it in a sealed bag on ice (never directly on ice) and come immediately.

English, Tamil, Hindi and Telugu.

Yes. Dr. Jithendran offers Crisalix 3D consultations for face, breast and body procedures. You upload three photographs, and during the consultation you can view a 3D simulation of possible results, for example to compare breast implant sizes. Simulations are a planning aid, not a guarantee of outcome.

Silicone gel implants generally feel closer to natural breast tissue, while saline implants are filled with sterile salt water and feel firmer and more uniform. Both are widely used. The right choice depends on your tissue thickness, desired look, age and preferences, and is decided together with your surgeon at consultation. More on Breast Augmentation →

Breast augmentation usually does not affect the ability to breastfeed, and silicone has not been found in breast milk. Incisions and implant placement that avoid the milk ducts help preserve function. Discuss future pregnancy plans with your surgeon, as pregnancy can also change breast shape after surgery. More on Breast Augmentation →

Many women with very heavy breasts report less neck, shoulder and back pain after reduction, because the weight on the chest is reduced. Relief depends on the cause of your pain, so other spinal or posture problems should also be assessed. Your surgeon will discuss what improvement is realistic for you. More on Breast Reduction →

Most women walk on the day of surgery and go home within 1-2 days. Desk work is often possible after one to two weeks, and full recovery typically takes 3-4 weeks. Heavy lifting and strenuous exercise are usually avoided for about six weeks. More on Breast Reduction →

Signs include nipples that point downward, nipples sitting at or below the crease under the breast, stretched skin and loss of upper-breast fullness. Home tests can give a hint, but only an examination by a plastic surgeon can confirm whether a lift is needed and which type of lift would suit you. More on Breast Lift →

No. A lift mainly raises and reshapes the breast and does not significantly change its size. If you also want more volume, a breast implant can be placed during the same operation, known as an augmentation-mastopexy. More on Breast Lift →

Immediate reconstruction often preserves breast skin and avoids a period without a breast shape, but it may still need later stages. Delayed reconstruction may be better if you need radiotherapy, have other health problems, or prefer to focus on cancer treatment first. The decision is made together with your breast surgeon and oncologist. More on Breast Reconstruction After Mastectomy →

Studies show that breast reconstruction does not cause breast cancer to return. If cancer does recur, a reconstructed breast should not interfere with chemotherapy or radiotherapy, and reconstruction rarely, if ever, hides a recurrence. Regular follow-up with your cancer team remains essential. More on Breast Reconstruction After Mastectomy →

Gynaecomastia in newborns and at puberty often settles by itself within months to a few years. If it persists into adulthood, or the tissue has become firm and fibrous, it is unlikely to disappear on its own and medicines rarely help. Surgery is then the most effective treatment. More on Gynaecomastia Surgery →

Not always. True gynaecomastia involves firm glandular tissue behind the nipple, which does not respond to diet or exercise. Some men have mostly fat (pseudogynaecomastia), which may improve with weight loss. Many have both, which is why surgery usually combines liposuction with removal of glandular tissue. More on Gynaecomastia Surgery →

Liposuction is a contouring procedure, not a weight-loss treatment. The scale may change only modestly; the main benefit is improved shape and proportion in the treated areas. Results show gradually over several months as swelling settles. More on Liposuction and Liposculpturing →

Fat cells removed by liposuction do not return, but remaining fat cells can enlarge if you gain weight. New weight gain tends to be deposited in untreated areas. A balanced diet and regular exercise are important to maintain the result. More on Liposuction and Liposculpturing →

Yes. Separation of the rectus muscles (divarication) is common after pregnancy and does not correct with exercise alone. During abdominoplasty, the surgeon stitches the muscle covering together to tighten the abdominal wall, as well as removing excess skin and fat. More on Abdominoplasty →

A mini abdominoplasty treats skin and fat below the navel through a shorter incision and usually does not move the navel. A full abdominoplasty treats the whole abdomen, tightens the muscles above and below the navel, and repositions the navel. Your anatomy determines which is suitable. More on Abdominoplasty →

Exercise can tone the underlying muscle and reduce fat, but it cannot tighten loose, stretched skin. When skin has lost its elasticity after weight loss or ageing, removing the excess skin with an arm lift is usually the only way to tighten it. More on Arm Lift →

Yes. The scar depends on the technique: a short armpit scar for a minimal-incision lift, or a longer scar along the inner arm for a traditional or extended lift. Scars are placed to be as discreet as possible and typically fade over 12-18 months. More on Arm Lift →

No. Liposuction removes fat and works when the skin is elastic. A thigh lift removes loose skin and some fat to tighten the thigh. Many patients benefit from both, with liposuction used to refine the shape during the thigh lift. More on Thigh Lift →

Scars are usually placed in the groin crease so they can be hidden by underwear. Outer thigh lifts place them at the top of the leg, and a medial lift may need a vertical scar along the inner thigh when there is a lot of loose skin. Scars typically fade over 12-18 months. More on Thigh Lift →

A standard hernia repair closes a defect directly or with mesh. Abdominal wall reconstruction is used for larger, recurrent or complex defects, often with poor skin cover, and involves repositioning the abdominal muscles, mesh reinforcement and sometimes flaps or skin grafts to rebuild the wall. More on Abdominal Wall Reconstruction →

Hospital stay is typically about five days, or until your bowel function returns. You will usually wear an abdominal binder for at least one month after discharge, and tenderness and swelling are expected for some weeks. More on Abdominal Wall Reconstruction →

Timing depends on severity. If the eyelid blocks the pupil and threatens vision development, surgery is usually advised early to prevent lazy eye. Milder cases can often wait until the child is older and facial structures are more developed. Your surgeon will assess vision, head posture and muscle strength before recommending timing. More on Ptosis Correction →

No. Ptosis surgery tightens or supports the muscle that raises the eyelid, changing the height of the lid margin. Blepharoplasty removes excess skin and fat from the eyelids. Some patients need both, and they can often be done in the same sitting if your surgeon advises it. More on Ptosis Correction →

Stop smoking several weeks before and after surgery and avoid alcohol in the week before. Avoid aspirin and other anti-inflammatory medicines in the weeks before, unless your doctor says otherwise. Fast for at least 6 hours, arrange a driver and household help, and expect heart, lung and eye tests beforehand. More on Blepharoplasty →

Transconjunctival blepharoplasty is done from the inside of the lower eyelid and removes fat without removing skin, leaving no visible scar. Transcutaneous blepharoplasty uses an incision on the skin, usually just below the lashes or in the upper-lid crease, and allows excess skin to be removed. More on Blepharoplasty →

Candidates are generally at least 15 years old, when facial growth is complete. Earlier surgery may be considered only for specific medical reasons. Your surgeon will also check that you are physically healthy and that you want the surgery for yourself, with realistic goals. More on Rhinoplasty →

Healing is gradual. Many patients notice improvement within a few weeks once the splint is removed and swelling reduces, but subtle swelling, especially at the tip, can take up to a year to settle completely. Final judgement of the result is usually made after that time. More on Rhinoplasty →

Dermabrasion removes the outer skin layer mechanically with a rotating brush or diamond burr and is suited to deeper scars and texture problems. A chemical peel uses a controlled solution to remove skin to a chosen depth and is mainly used for fine wrinkles and texture. Your surgeon will recommend one based on your skin and concerns. More on Dermabrasion and Chemical Peeling →

Dermabrasion can make acne scars smoother and less noticeable, but it cannot remove them completely. Deep or pitted scars may improve partially and sometimes need combined treatments. Results depend on scar type, skin type and healing. More on Dermabrasion and Chemical Peeling →

Hyaluronic acid fillers typically last around six months or longer, depending on the product, the amount used and individual metabolism. Fat transfer can last longer but may change with weight gain or loss. Top-up treatments are commonly needed to maintain filler results. More on Lip Lift, Lip Augmentation and Lip Reduction →

A lip lift suits people with a long upper lip, usually more than about 1.1 cm from the nose, whose upper teeth do not show at rest, or whose mouth corners turn down. It should not be done during active cold sores or facial skin disorders. More on Lip Lift, Lip Augmentation and Lip Reduction →

Botox relaxes the muscles that create expression lines, such as crow's feet and frown lines. Fillers add volume beneath the skin to smooth static wrinkles, deep folds, thin lips and recessed scars. Many people benefit from a combination, and your doctor will advise based on the type of wrinkle. More on Botox and Facial Fillers →

Results from both Botox and fillers are usually visible within about 10 days, and fillers often show an immediate change. Botox takes a few days to begin working as nerve signals to the muscle are reduced. More on Botox and Facial Fillers →

A facelift treats sagging of the midface and jawline, jowls, deep folds from the nose to the mouth, marionette lines, fallen facial fat and loose neck skin. It mainly addresses the lower two-thirds of the face and does not change the eyelids or forehead on its own. More on Facelift →

Yes. Eyelid surgery, a brow lift or neck contouring can be performed in the same operation, although they are separate procedures. If your concern is only the eyes or neck, a smaller procedure such as an eyelid lift or neck lift may be enough. More on Facelift →

Microtia means the outer ear is small or not fully formed. Anotia means the outer ear is completely absent and is the most severe form. In both, the inner ear is usually normal, although the ear canal may be missing in severe cases. More on Ear Contour Correction →

Reconstruction with the child's own rib cartilage is usually done from about 8 to 10 years, when enough cartilage has developed. A porous polyethylene implant can be used earlier, from about 4 to 6 years. Your surgeon will advise based on the child's growth and the severity of the condition. More on Ear Contour Correction →

No. Scars cannot be removed completely, but treatment can make them much less visible. Options such as surgical revision, steroid injections, laser or peels can flatten, narrow or smooth a scar, and the best choice depends on its type, size and location. More on Scar Revision, Mole and Wart Removal →

See a doctor if a mole itches, bleeds, or changes in shape, size or colour. Most moles are harmless, but these changes need examination. A removed mole can be sent for laboratory testing if there is any concern. More on Scar Revision, Mole and Wart Removal →

Common reasons include injury or fracture, removal of skin cancer, burns, infection and birth defects. The goal is to restore the nose's shape, support and lining so it looks natural and functions well. More on Aesthetic Nasal Reconstruction →

A forehead flap moves skin from the forehead, still attached to its blood supply, to cover a large or deep nasal defect. It stays connected for about 3 to 4 weeks while it heals into place, then the bridge is divided. It is a reliable option for major defects. More on Aesthetic Nasal Reconstruction →

Otoplasty reshapes or repositions an existing ear, for example prominent ears or changes after injury. Ear reconstruction builds a new ear framework, usually from rib cartilage or an implant, when the ear is underdeveloped or missing. More on Ear Reconstruction and Otoplasty →

Rib cartilage reconstruction is typically performed between about 10 and 16 years of age, when enough cartilage is available, and is done in two to four stages. Implant-based methods may be considered at a younger age. More on Ear Reconstruction and Otoplasty →

It may help women whose vaginal muscles and tissues have stretched or weakened after childbirth, especially after several births, a large baby or a difficult delivery, or with age. Women who notice looseness, discomfort or reduced sensation can discuss whether surgery is suitable at a private consultation. More on Vaginal Tightening →

No. Vaginal tightening repairs the internal muscles and tissues to narrow the vagina. Labiaplasty reduces or reshapes the labia, the outer folds of skin. The two procedures are often combined if both concerns are present. More on Vaginal Tightening →

Many choose it to relieve physical discomfort, such as chafing, irritation or pain during exercise, cycling, tight clothing or intercourse caused by long or prominent labia. Others are concerned about appearance after childbirth or with age. A confidential consultation helps decide whether it is appropriate. More on Labiaplasty →

A trim (edge) resection removes excess tissue along the free edge of the labia minora. A wedge resection removes a V-shaped, partial-thickness section from the thickest part and preserves the natural edge. Your surgeon will choose based on your anatomy and goals. More on Labiaplasty →

Hymenoplasty is a minor surgical procedure that repairs the torn edges of the hymen with fine, layered dissolvable stitches so that it appears intact after healing. It is usually done as day surgery under local or general anaesthesia and takes about an hour. More on Hymenoplasty →

Layered hymenoplasty needs about six to eight weeks to heal fully, so it is usually planned at least that far ahead. Simple stitch repair is sometimes done a few weeks before, but it is less preferred. Your surgeon will advise on timing at consultation. More on Hymenoplasty →

No. An implant restores the appearance, size and feel of the scrotum, but it does not produce hormones or sperm. If you have one healthy remaining testicle, it usually maintains hormone levels and fertility on its own. More on Testicular Implants →

Yes, in many cases an implant can be placed at the same time as removal of the testicle (orchiectomy), or later as a separate procedure. Your surgeon will discuss timing based on your treatment plan. More on Testicular Implants →

An implant is usually considered when erectile dysfunction has a clear medical cause and has not improved with lifestyle changes, tablets or injections. Your surgeon will confirm the diagnosis, review your health and discuss expectations before recommending surgery. More on Penile Implants →

Skin sensation is preserved, and orgasm and ejaculation are usually unchanged because the implant only provides rigidity. The device is hidden inside the body and is not visible from outside. More on Penile Implants →

Common medical reasons include a tight foreskin that will not pull back (phimosis), a foreskin trapped behind the head (paraphimosis) and repeated infections. Some men choose it for religious, hygiene or personal reasons. Non-surgical options such as steroid cream may be tried first for a tight foreskin. More on Circumcision →

It is done under anaesthesia, so you should not feel pain during the procedure. Afterwards, soreness and swelling typically last 3 to 4 days and are managed with pain relief, loose clothing and petroleum jelly. More on Circumcision →

The procedure uses your own fat. Fat is taken from the abdomen by liposuction, processed and injected beneath the skin of the penis. A soft dressing helps it spread evenly. No implant is used. More on Penile Girth Enlargement →

Not fully. Some of the transferred fat is naturally reabsorbed, usually over 5 to 6 months, which can reduce the gain or cause unevenness. Further fat injections may be needed. Penile enhancement surgery does not have a fully predictable outcome. More on Penile Girth Enlargement →

Gains vary and cannot be predicted precisely. Release of the suspensory ligament typically adds a few centimetres, mostly in flaccid length, with a smaller effect on erect length. Results depend on anatomy and on following the post-operative stretching routine. More on Penile Lengthening Surgery →

Erectile function is not usually affected, but the angle of erection may become more horizontal after the suspensory ligament is released. This change is usually minor, but discuss it with your surgeon before deciding. More on Penile Lengthening Surgery →

A square face may be due to an enlarged lower jaw bone, a thick masseter (chewing) muscle, or fat build-up in the cheeks. Heavy chewing or teeth grinding can enlarge the masseter. A CT scan and examination help identify the cause and the right treatment. More on Square Face Correction →

Masseter muscle reduction and most jaw bone contouring are done through incisions inside the mouth, so there is usually no visible facial scar. Liposuction uses tiny incisions that typically fade well. More on Square Face Correction →

Cheeks can be enhanced with solid silicone implants, dermal fillers or fat grafting. Implants give lasting projection and are often preferred, while fillers are non-surgical but temporary. Your surgeon will recommend an option based on your face shape and goals. More on Cheekbone Enhancement and Reduction →

Buccal fat removal takes out the fat pads inside the cheeks to slim a full or round mid-face. It is an outpatient procedure done through a small incision inside the mouth, so there is no visible scar. More on Cheekbone Enhancement and Reduction →

Prognathism means the upper or lower jaw protrudes noticeably. An underbite from a protruding lower jaw can affect breathing, speech, biting, chewing and appearance. It is often inherited but can be linked to genetic or growth hormone conditions. More on Protruding Lower Jaw Correction →

Usually yes. Orthodontic treatment aligns the teeth before and after surgery so that the bite fits correctly once the jaws are repositioned. Your surgeon and orthodontist plan treatment together, using scans and dental models. More on Protruding Lower Jaw Correction →

A chin implant adds volume with a silicone implant placed over the bone. Sliding genioplasty moves your own chin bone forward or back and fixes it with a plate and screws. Sliding genioplasty can also shorten or correct asymmetry, while implants only add projection. More on Chin Correction →

Sliding genioplasty and implants placed through the inside of the lower lip leave no external scar. An implant inserted under the chin leaves a small scar in the natural crease, which typically fades over time. More on Chin Correction →

No. Many finger and metacarpal fractures are undisplaced or can be set without an operation and heal well in a splint or cast. Surgery is usually advised when the fracture is displaced, broken into several pieces, open through the skin, or unstable after being set, because these are more likely to heal in a poor position. More on Hand Fractures →

Typical signs are severe pain at one spot, swelling, bruising, visible deformity or a finger that rotates or overlaps its neighbour when you make a fist, and difficulty moving it. Numbness or tingling can mean a nerve is involved. An X-ray is needed to confirm a fracture. More on Hand Fractures →

Common early signs are tingling or numbness in the thumb, index, middle and ring fingers, often worse at night or when holding a phone or steering wheel. People may wake up shaking the hand. Later, grip can weaken and objects may slip from the hand. More on Carpal Tunnel Syndrome and Carpal Tunnel Release →

Yes, especially when symptoms are mild. Activity changes, anti-inflammatory medicines, night splints and steroid injections can relieve symptoms. Injections tend to give temporary relief. If symptoms persist after several weeks, or there is constant numbness or thumb weakness, surgery is usually recommended. More on Carpal Tunnel Syndrome and Carpal Tunnel Release →

The exact cause is not known. It often runs in families, suggesting a genetic link, and appears to involve inflammation that produces scar-like tissue in the palm. It is more common in men and in people with diabetes, epilepsy or alcohol-related disorders, and usually affects the ring and little fingers. More on Dupuytren's Contracture →

Surgery is usually considered when a cord has formed and the finger is bending progressively, limiting function, for example difficulty grasping objects or putting the hand into a pocket. A painless lump in the palm with good hand function can often simply be watched. More on Dupuytren's Contracture →

As early as practical, ideally at the time of the initial wound care or within days, when the nerve ends are clean and easier to bring together. Delayed repair is still possible, but scarring and retraction of the ends may mean a nerve graft is needed and recovery may be less complete. More on Nerve Repair and Nerve Grafting →

Nerves regrow at roughly 1 mm per day, so recovery depends on how far the regrowing fibres must travel. An injury in the finger may recover over a few months, while a nerve injury near the elbow or shoulder can take a year or more. Younger patients generally recover better. More on Nerve Repair and Nerve Grafting →

Yes. Brisk, pulsing bleeding or a pale, cold finger or hand after an injury suggests an artery has been cut. Apply firm pressure with a clean cloth, raise the hand, and go to an emergency department at once. Prompt repair gives the best chance of restoring blood flow. More on Blood Vessel Repair and Vein Grafting →

A vein graft is a segment of healthy vein, often taken from the foot or forearm, used to bridge or bypass a damaged section of artery or vein when the ends cannot be stitched together directly. Removing a small superficial vein does not usually affect circulation because other veins take over. More on Blood Vessel Repair and Vein Grafting →

Repaired tendons typically take 8 to 12 weeks to heal strongly. During this time a protective splint and a structured hand therapy programme are used to keep the tendon gliding without overloading the repair. Full strength and movement may continue to improve for several months. More on Tendon Repair and Tendon Transfer →

The finger or joint the tendon controls will not move properly, and the muscle and tendon end retract over time. Late repair is more difficult and may require a tendon graft or a staged reconstruction, so cut tendons are best repaired early, usually within days of the injury. More on Tendon Repair and Tendon Transfer →

For children born without a functional thumb, pollicisation is commonly performed in early childhood, often around the first or second year of life, so the child learns to use the new thumb as hand skills develop. The best timing is decided by the surgeon based on the child's hand and general health. More on Pollicisation →

The new thumb is built from a finger, so it has three joints rather than two and looks somewhat different. Most children learn to use it for pinching and grasping, but strength and movement are usually less than a normal thumb. Therapy and everyday use help function improve over time. More on Pollicisation →

Some can. Mild stretch injuries (neurapraxia) often recover fully within weeks, and some more severe injuries improve partially over months. Root avulsions, where the nerve is torn from the spinal cord, do not recover without surgery. Regular examination over the first weeks helps decide whether surgery is needed. More on Brachial Plexus Injuries →

Surgery is generally considered when paralysis, complete or partial, shows no signs of recovery within about 6 weeks of injury, or earlier for open, sharp injuries. Timing matters because muscles become less able to recover the longer they remain without a nerve supply. More on Brachial Plexus Injuries →

Toes share the same basic structure as fingers, with bone, joints, tendons, nerves and blood vessels. A transplanted toe can provide a thumb that moves, feels and grows (in children), which is difficult to achieve with other reconstruction methods. It restores much of the grip and pinch that losing a thumb takes away. More on Toe-to-Thumb Transplantation →

The great toe gives a stronger, more thumb-like result and is the most common choice, but its removal changes the look of the foot more. The second toe leaves the foot looking and working closer to normal, but the new thumb is slimmer. The surgeon recommends an option based on your needs. More on Toe-to-Thumb Transplantation →

Compartment syndrome is a dangerous build-up of pressure inside the closed muscle compartments of the hand or forearm after injury. It cuts off blood supply to muscles and nerves. Warning signs include tense, shiny swelling, severe pain out of proportion to the injury, and tingling. It is an emergency usually treated by fasciotomy. More on Crush Injuries of the Hand →

No. Minor crush injuries with small wounds can often be managed with cleaning, ice, elevation and monitoring for infection. Injuries with significant swelling, fractures, deep wounds, poor circulation or signs of compartment syndrome usually need surgical assessment and often an operation. More on Crush Injuries of the Hand →

A fistula uses your own blood vessels, so it typically has lower rates of infection and clotting than synthetic grafts or catheters, provides good blood flow for efficient dialysis, lasts longer and usually needs less maintenance. Kidney organisations such as the National Kidney Foundation recommend it as the preferred access. More on Arteriovenous Fistula for Dialysis →

A new fistula usually needs about six weeks to four months to mature, as the vein enlarges and its wall thickens. This is why it is ideally created well before dialysis is needed. Hand exercises such as squeezing a soft ball can help. More on Arteriovenous Fistula for Dialysis →

Ideally within hours of the injury, once the wound has been assessed and cleaned. The face has a rich blood supply, which helps healing, but early careful repair reduces infection and gives the best chance of a neat scar. Heavily contaminated wounds may need cleaning before closure. More on Soft Tissue Injuries of the Face →

Any wound through the full thickness of the skin heals with a scar. Careful cleaning, precise alignment and fine stitches, together with sun protection and scar massage, help make it as inconspicuous as possible. Scars usually fade over 6 to 12 months, and some can be improved later with revision. More on Soft Tissue Injuries of the Face →

The most common cause is injury to the jaw joint, often a fall on the chin in childhood. Infection spreading to the joint, rheumatoid arthritis, previous surgery near the joint, and congenital or inherited conditions are other causes. Scarring or an enlarged coronoid process outside the joint can produce a similar 'false' ankylosis. More on TMJ Ankylosis Correction →

Established bony or fibrous fusion of the jaw joint does not respond to exercises or medicines alone. Surgery is needed to free the joint. Jaw exercises are, however, essential after surgery to maintain the improved mouth opening and lower the risk of the joint fusing again. More on TMJ Ankylosis Correction →

Common signs include facial swelling and bruising, a bite that feels wrong, movement of the upper teeth, nosebleeds, numbness of the cheek or upper lip, double vision and a flattened or elongated look to the face. A CT scan confirms the fracture pattern. More on Maxillary Fractures →

Le Fort fractures are patterns of upper jaw fracture. Le Fort I runs horizontally above the upper teeth, Le Fort II forms a pyramid through the nose and lower eye sockets, and Le Fort III separates the whole midface from the skull. Higher levels generally indicate more severe injuries. More on Maxillary Fractures →

The frontal bone protects the front of the brain and contains the frontal sinus. A fracture can be associated with brain injury, leakage of brain fluid (CSF) and blocked sinus drainage, which can lead to infections such as meningitis or brain abscess if not managed properly. These injuries need careful assessment with a CT scan. More on Frontal Bone Fractures →

No. Undisplaced fractures of the front wall of the sinus are often managed without surgery. Surgery is usually advised when the bone is pushed in by more than 1 to 2 mm, when there is significant comminution, sinus drainage injury or CSF leak, or when there is a visible deformity. More on Frontal Bone Fractures →

A simple nasal fracture involves only the nasal bones. A naso-ethmoidal fracture extends deeper into the bones between the eyes, the inner walls of the eye sockets and sometimes the skull base. It is more complex, can affect the eyes, tear drainage and brain coverings, and usually needs open surgical repair. More on Naso-Ethmoidal Fractures →

Telecanthus is an abnormal widening of the distance between the inner corners of the eyes. In NOE fractures, it happens when the bone holding the medial canthal tendon is displaced or the tendon is torn. It is much easier to correct at the initial repair than later. More on Naso-Ethmoidal Fractures →

No. The existing page notes that about half of zygomatic fractures need no surgery. Undisplaced fractures without eye or bite problems can often heal on their own. Surgery is advised when the cheek is flattened, the eye socket is disrupted, mouth opening is restricted or nerve function is affected. More on Zygomatic Fractures →

Typical signs are swelling and bruising around the eye, a flattened cheek once swelling settles, numbness of the cheek, side of the nose and upper lip, pain on opening the mouth, nosebleed and sometimes double vision. A CT scan confirms the fracture. More on Zygomatic Fractures →

Signs include pain, swelling, a bite that feels wrong, loose or shifted teeth, numbness of the lower lip or chin, bleeding from the gums and difficulty opening the mouth. Pain just in front of the ear can mean a fracture near the jaw joint. X-rays or a CT scan confirm it. More on Mandible Fractures →

Simple fractures may be treated by wiring the teeth together for about six weeks. Many fractures are now fixed with small plates and screws, which can reduce or avoid the need for prolonged wiring. Your surgeon will recommend the method that suits the fracture. More on Mandible Fractures →

Microtia is a congenital condition in which the outer ear is small or not fully formed. It can range from a slightly smaller ear to an almost absent ear and may be accompanied by a narrowed or absent ear canal. Reconstruction aims to create an ear that matches the other side as closely as possible. More on Ear Reconstruction →

When the patient's own rib cartilage is used, reconstruction is usually done between about 10 and 16 years of age, when there is enough cartilage to carve a framework. It is typically completed over two to four operations. Implant-based methods such as Medpor may allow different timing. More on Ear Reconstruction →

The eyelids protect and lubricate the eye. A defect that is left unrepaired can lead to corneal exposure, dryness, watering, notching of the lid or inability to close the eye, which can threaten vision. Reconstruction restores protection and function as well as appearance. More on Eyelid Reconstruction →

No. Small, superficial defects often heal within one to two weeks with wound care, and defects under 1 cm confined to the inner corner of the eye may heal on their own. Larger or full-thickness defects, or those involving the tear drainage system, generally need surgical repair. More on Eyelid Reconstruction →

Small defects of less than about half of the lip can usually be closed directly after a wedge excision. Larger defects use flaps from the remaining lip, the opposite lip or the cheek, such as Karapandzic, Abbe or Estlander flaps. Very large defects may need regional or microvascular free flaps. More on Lip and Cheek Reconstruction →

Restoring eating, speech and mouth opening is the main goal. Most patients regain good function, though larger reconstructions can change lip movement, sensation or mouth opening. Your surgeon will choose a technique that preserves as much function as possible for your particular defect. More on Lip and Cheek Reconstruction →

The fibula, a thin bone in the lower leg, provides a long, strong segment of bone with a reliable blood supply that can be cut and shaped to match the curve of the jaw. It can also carry skin, and dental implants can be placed in it. Most people walk normally without it. More on Mandible Reconstruction →

At first, nutrition is usually given through a nasogastric tube while swelling settles. You then progress to clear liquids and soft foods as advised. Mouth rinses help keep the mouth clean, and you should avoid pressure on the jaw in the early days. More on Mandible Reconstruction →

The scalp's layers stretch very little and the skull is curved, so even moderate defects often cannot be pulled together without excessive tension. Plastic surgeons use rotation flaps, tissue expansion, skin grafts or free flaps to close the wound reliably and with less risk of breakdown. More on Forehead and Scalp Reconstruction →

Flaps and expanded skin taken from hair-bearing scalp carry their own hair, so hair usually grows normally. Skin grafts and free flaps from elsewhere do not grow scalp hair. Tissue expansion is often used later to replace bald grafted areas with hair-bearing skin. More on Forehead and Scalp Reconstruction →

Superficial burns are red and painful, partial-thickness burns are moist and blistered, and full-thickness burns look white, brown or leathery and may be less painful. Depth can change over the first few days, so a doctor should assess any burn that is blistered, large or slow to heal. More on Burn Wound Management →

Deep partial-thickness and full-thickness burns usually cannot heal well on their own in a reasonable time. Grafting covers the wound sooner, lowers the risk of infection and reduces contracture and scarring. Superficial burns usually heal with dressings or a collagen sheet. More on Burn Wound Management →

Usually until the scar matures, which typically takes about a year. Mature scars bleed less and grafts take better. Earlier surgery is considered when the contracture threatens the eye, prevents eating or neck movement, cripples the hand, or cannot be helped by physiotherapy. More on Post-Burn Contractures and Scarring →

The risk can be reduced by early skin graft cover of deep burns, correct positioning, splints worn day and night, preventing infection and daily stretching. After healing, pressure garments, silicone gel sheets, moisturisers and sun protection help limit raised scars. More on Post-Burn Contractures and Scarring →

Moderate and severe crush injuries are emergencies. Tissue can die from poor blood supply, and complications such as compartment syndrome and crush syndrome can threaten the limb, the kidneys and even life. Seek hospital care immediately after a significant crush injury. More on Crush Injuries of the Lower Limb →

Compartment syndrome is a dangerous build-up of pressure within the muscle compartments of the limb after injury, which cuts off blood flow. Warning signs include severe pain out of proportion to the injury, tightness and numbness. It is treated urgently with a fasciotomy, which opens the compartments to relieve pressure. More on Crush Injuries of the Lower Limb →

A partially torn heel pad that still has a good blood supply can often be reattached, usually with K-wires rather than tight stitches. A completely detached heel pad usually cannot survive and is removed, and the heel is rebuilt with a flap that brings its own blood supply. More on Heel Pad Avulsion Reconstruction →

The heel bears the full weight of the body. Skin grafts break down easily under this load, so weight-bearing areas need flaps, which bring their own blood supply and thicker, durable tissue. Grafts are reserved for non-weight-bearing parts of the foot. More on Heel Pad Avulsion Reconstruction →

Once the bone is exposed through the skin, bacteria can enter the wound and the bone. Early antibiotics, thorough cleaning and debridement, and stabilisation greatly reduce the risk of deep infection. Delay increases the chance of infection and of the fracture failing to heal. More on Open Fractures →

Gustilo IIIB is a severe open fracture in which the soft tissue damage is so extensive that the bone cannot be covered by the remaining skin and muscle. It needs soft tissue reconstruction, usually a local or free flap, in addition to bone fixation. More on Open Fractures →

No. Besides their appearance, varicose veins can cause aching, heaviness, swelling, cramps, skin discolouration, eczema and leg ulcers, and can bleed or develop clots. Treatment is recommended when symptoms or skin changes develop. More on Varicose Veins Treatment →

It is a minimally invasive treatment in which a thin laser fibre or radiofrequency catheter is passed into the faulty vein through a tiny puncture under ultrasound guidance. Heat seals the vein, which then shrinks. It is usually done under local anaesthesia as a day procedure without stitches. More on Varicose Veins Treatment →

A wound is generally considered chronic if it has not shown improvement after about four weeks or has not fully closed by about eight weeks. Such wounds need assessment to find and treat the underlying cause, such as poor circulation, diabetes, pressure or infection. More on Non-Healing Wounds →

Common tests include blood tests for anaemia and diabetes, arterial and venous colour Doppler scans to check circulation, X-rays to look for bone involvement, a wound biopsy and nerve conduction tests. The results guide treatment. More on Non-Healing Wounds →

In many cases, yes. Early debridement, infection control, improving blood supply and covering the wound with grafts or flaps can save the foot or limit amputation. The chances depend on the extent of infection, circulation and overall health, so early specialist care matters. More on Diabetic Foot Salvage and Reconstruction →

Diabetes damages nerves, so injuries go unnoticed, and reduces blood flow, which slows healing and weakens resistance to infection. High blood sugar also impairs healing. Controlling sugar levels and offloading pressure are as important as surgery itself. More on Diabetic Foot Salvage and Reconstruction →

The chest wall protects the heart and lungs and supports breathing. When part of it is removed for a tumour, damaged by injury or radiation, or infected after heart surgery, reconstruction restores stability, protects the organs and closes the wound with healthy tissue. More on Chest Wall Reconstruction →

Bony defects may be stabilised with mesh or other materials, and the soft tissue is rebuilt with flaps, usually muscles such as pectoralis major, latissimus dorsi or rectus abdominis, or the omentum. Superficial defects can be covered with skin grafts. More on Chest Wall Reconstruction →

Sternal wound dehiscence is separation of the breastbone and wound after a sternotomy for heart surgery. It may be caused by infection, poor healing or excessive strain on the wires. Signs include a clicking or moving breastbone, wound discharge and the wound opening. It needs prompt surgical review. More on Sternal Osteomyelitis and Sternal Wound Dehiscence →

Treatment combines antibiotics with surgery. Infected bone, cartilage and wires are removed, the wound is often cleaned further with negative pressure therapy, and it is then closed with healthy muscle flaps, most commonly from the pectoralis major, which brings a good blood supply to fight infection. More on Sternal Osteomyelitis and Sternal Wound Dehiscence →

Vaginal atresia is a congenital condition in which part or all of the vagina has not developed and is replaced by fibrous tissue. It usually occurs with other differences of the genital tract. Modern surgical techniques allow a functional vagina to be created. More on Vaginal Reconstruction →

For congenital atresia with a functioning uterus, surgery is usually delayed until the late teens unless there is obstruction, pain or risk of endometriosis. If the uterus is absent, it is not urgent. After cancer surgery, reconstruction is generally best done at the same time as the cancer operation. More on Vaginal Reconstruction →

Stage 3 and 4 pressure sores, which extend through the skin into fat, muscle or bone, usually need surgery because they rarely heal with dressings alone. Stage 1 and 2 sores are usually managed with pressure relief and wound care, with surgery considered only if they fail to heal. More on Pressure Sore Reconstruction →

A flap is healthy tissue, often skin and muscle from the buttock or thigh, moved with its blood supply into the cleaned wound. Gluteus maximus V-Y advancement flaps are commonly used for sacral sores and tensor fascia lata flaps for hip (trochanteric) sores. More on Pressure Sore Reconstruction →